"Kill the Indian to save the man"

(Henry Pratt)

Curriculum Vitae

Resume

Syllabi of Classes

The Native American Boarding School Experience 1880-1940

Collaborative Storytelling- The Evolution of Narrative in Role-Playing Games

Thirty Seconds to Impress: LIS Distance Education and Employment

Adult Graphic Novel Collection for the Public Library

Top Secret! A Checklist Evaluation of Non Fiction Espioinage Monographs at the Geogretown University Libraries

Book Reviews

Introduction

Kill the Indian to save the man was one of the favorite quotes of Henry Pratt, a soldier turned educator. With approval from Congress, he established the Carlisle Industrial Indian School in 1880, located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. His militaristic, regimental teaching methods became the national standard. By 1920 it evolved into a threefold system, where students usually started their education at mission or reservation schools and were then sent to off reservation boarding schools.

The system was designed to assimilate American Indians into mainstream American culture by removing all vestiges of their traditional culture. Students were required to wear school uniforms and speak only in English. While the system hoped to improve the economic lives of Native Americans, sporadic funding and overcrowded conditions created a health crisis, where almost one out of every eleven students died. And while the schools offered a number of vocational programs, most graduates struggled to find employment.

The system largely failed, in terms of the goals of the educators, but unified the Native Americans themselves. Students found ways to preserve culture. Armed with their education, they wrote of their experiences and many became leaders in the Pan Indian movement. The Pan Indian movement emphasized that Native American and American culture should co-exist within the greater scope of American society.

By 1924, Native Americans became American citizens; as a result the United States government sponsored schools closed, in favor of the public school system. A handful, still operate, under very different conditions. Part of United States and American Indian history, the boarding school system and its legacy is a source of numerous studies.

While traditionally examined in terms of United States government policy, recent studies by historians focus on the experiences of the students in these schools through: biographical information, interviews, school documents, government reports etc. Examples of include health and working conditions, preservation of cultural identify, curriculum, photographs, the role of female students, etc.

Identifying and locating these types of materials is the focus of this pathfinder, which is limited to government, sponsored off reservation boarding schools, in the United States 1880-1930.

Contents

• Introduction
• Subject Headings
• Browsing Areas
• Key to Abbreviations
• Encyclopedias
• Bibliographies
• Abstracts and Indexes
• Government Documents
• Biographical Resources
• Books on General Resources
• Books on Specific Boarding Schools
• Boarding School Newspapers
• Journal Articles
• Web Sites
• Images and Interviews
• Audio-Visual Resources

Subject Headings

The following Library of Congress subject headings will help to find resources in IUCAT, journals and web sites. Also consider using the names of specific schools.

• American literature-Indian authors- History and criticsm
• Indians of North America-Biography
• Indians of North America-Cultural assimilation
• Indians of North America-Education
• Indians of North America- Intellectual life
• Off reservation boarding schools- history
• United States-history

Browsing Areas

• Browsing is another way to become familiar with the facets of a particular topic. To browse for material about boarding schools
• E75-99-Indians of North America
• PS1-3576- American Literature
• PS126-138- Biographies, memoirs, letters

Key to Abbreviations

• B-Wells- Bloomington Herman B. Wells Library Main Stacks
• B-Wells KENT- Bloomington Herman B. Wells Kent Cooper Room
• B-Wells REF- Bloomington Herman B. Wells Library Reference Room
• GIMSS- MFMFLM- Government Information Microforms & Statistical Services
• MCPL- Monroe County Public Library

Encyclopedias

The following encyclopedias contain background information on Native American Boarding Schools.

• Crawford, S.J. & Kelley, D.F. (2005). Boarding schools. In American Indian Religious Traditions: An Encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp. 77-83), Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO
  B-Wells REF E98.R3 C755 2005

Discusses the evolution of religous mission schools. When the government approved funding for off reservation boarding schools, the missions became contract schools,incorporation a religious and educational curriculumn. While the system intended to create better economic opportunities for groups, the opportunites rarely materialized after graduation. The article covers the many illnesses students were exposed to, provides examples for non compliance and the treatment of runaways.

• Johansen, B.E. & Pritzker, B.M. (2008). Boarding schools, United States and Canada. In Encyclopedia of American Indian history (pp. 96-102), Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
  B-Wells REF E77 .E48 2008

An article comparing the boarding school systems in the United States and Canada. Presents excerpts from an essay which demonstrating assimilist goals.

• McClinton-Temple, J. (2007). Effect of education on Native American literature. In Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature (pp.90-94), New York: Facts on File.
  B-Wells REF PS153.I52 E53 2007

In the 1900's there were numerous Native Americans wrote of their experiences in boarding schools. The best known, by Zitkala-Sa is a part of the American literary cannon. Students also wrote about linguistic rebellion, such as using sign language in place of English, and letter to family at the reservations.

• Olson, J.S. & Wilson, R. (1984). Bureau of Indian affairs school. In Native Americans in the 20th century: An encyclopedia (pp.72-79), Provo, Utah : Brigham Young University Press.
  B-Wells REF E77 .O47 1984

The Bureau of Indian Affairs was the government organization responsible for Native American education. Article reviews how the system evolved and highlights some of the best known educators such as Pratt, Morgan and Collier. Compares their different educational policies.

Bibliographies

These bibliographies are from research libraries, universities and digital archives. Also included are bibliographies to government resources relating to American Indians, a guide to Native American periodicals and newspapers and a general research guide on where to find information about North American Indians.

• Byler, M.G., Dorris, M.A. & Hirschfelder, A.B. (1983). Guide to research on North American Indians Chicago: American Library Association.
  B-Wells REF Z1209.2.N67H57 1983

This general guide provides recommendations on autobiographies and biographies, health, medicine and disease, language, religion and philosophy and literature. Each of these represent topics influenced or affected by the Native American boarding school experience.

• Danky, J.P. & Hady, M.E. (1984). Native American periodicals and newspapers 1828-1982: Bibliography, publishing record and holdings.Westport: Greenwood Press.
  B-Wells Z 1209.2.U5 D36 1984

This two volume set provides numerous publications. Organized by title, the work also contains a detailed index allowing the user to focus on specific subjects. Especially useful if researching a particular tribe or region of the country.

• Hill, E. (1981), Guide to records in the national archives of the United States relating to American Indians. Washington D.C.: National archives of the United States relating to American Indians.
  B-Wells Z 1209.2.U54 1981

A useful guide for identifying government documents that may lead to oral histories or statistical information.

• Landis, B. (2008). Bibliography secondary sources Retreived November 25, 2008, from Carlisle Indian Industrial School Web site:
http://home.epix.net/~landis/secondary.html/

Bibliography consists of monographs and dissertations. Primary sources pertaining specifically to the Carlisle Indian Industrial School are also available.

• Staff of the Mashantucket Pequot Museum & Research Center. (2007). Indian residential schools: A bibliography Retrieved November 27 from Mashantucket Pequot Research Library Web site:
http://www.pequotmuseum.org/uploaded_images/8564D213-7519-4055-B791-ADD058B62EA7/ResidentialSchools.htm/

Bibliography of books and video resources.

• Thompson, B.N. (2008). Boarding schools. Retrieved November 25, 2008, from Arizona State University Web site:
http://history.clas.asu.edu/files/shared/H-AmIndian_Bib_-_BoardingSchools.pdf/

This five page bibliography describes monographs, jounal articles and videos about the Native American boarding school experience.

• University of Richmond. (2008). Selected bibliography on American Indian boarding schools and resistant strategies of Indian students at Indian schools Retreived December 3, 2008 from University of Richmond Web site:
http://oncampus.richmond.edu/faculty/ASAIL/JRA2.html/

Provides numerous journal resources.

Abstracts and Indexes

The following databases are available at Indiana University on or off campus. Recommended search strategies include: the names of specific schools, names of educators and famous students, industrial school, boarding school, contract school, Native American education, etc. Specific articles that were found in these databases are also included in the pathfinder.

• America History & Life
  Indexing for 1700 journals from 1964 to current. Includes the history and culture of the United States and Canada. In addition to journal articles, this index also includes book and media reviews.

• Bibliography of Native North Americans
  Includes Native North American culture, history, and life. This resource covers multicultural relations, governance, and literacy. This index has over 122,000 citations for books, essays, journal articles, and government documents of the United States and Canada. Covers from the sixteenth century to the present.

• ERIC
  ERIC, the Educational Resource Information Center, provides education literature and resources. This index has 1,243,000 records and links to more than 224,000 full-text documents.

• JSTOR
  Over one thousand journal in the fields of humanities, social sciences and sciences. Special features include term highlighting and images.

• Lexis- Nexis Congressional Serial Set
  Searches congressional materials and legislative histories. Documents are from 1789 to the present.

• Project Muse
  Over four hundred full text, indexed and peer reviewed titles in the humanities and social sciences.

• Proquest Dissertations and Thesis
  Citations and abstracts for dissertations, primarily from 1997 to current

Government Documents

Because Native American boarding schools were an official government policy, there are many documents available. A few of the most important are listed here. See the Abstracts and Index section for additional resources.

• Bliss, C.N. (1898). Education of Indian children in certain schools: Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, transmitting, in response to resolution of the Senate of February 2, 1898, a report prepared in the office of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs communicating certain information relating to the education of Indian children in the schools named in said resolution . Washington D.C.: Secretary of the Interior.
  Accessible on and off campus through IUCAT and student password.

This letter, meant for Congress, provides statistical information on the per capita cost of education per child at fifteen off boarding schools. Factors in the cost of transportation and analyzes the number of students, who upon graduation, return to the reservations. It is acessible through IUCAT which links to Lexis Nexis with a valid login

• Brookings Institution. (1928). The problem of Indian administration. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press.
  B-Wells E93 .B8 1971 1971

Also known as the Meriam Report, this study effectively ended the traditional Native American boarding school system. Highlighting the numerous health issues, lack of funding and emotional cost to Native American families, this report is a key document in understanding the failure of the system.

• Taft, W.H. (1912). Diseases among Indians: Message from the President of the United States, in relation to the present conditions of health on Indian reservations and in Indian Schools, pointing out the alarming death rate, and urging upon Congress the necessity for additional appropriations for the use of the Indian Medical Service. Washington D.C.: Committee on Indian Affairs.
  Accessible on and off campus through IUCAT and student password.

Documentation of the health issues at Native American boarding schools, such as this letter, become the foundation for a reform movement. The reform movment was an attempt to mimic the public shool system. It is acessible through IUCAT which links to Lexis Nexis with a valid login

• Lester, R.E. (1993).Native Americans and the New Deal:The office files of John Collier, 1933-1945. Bethesda: MD: University Publications of America.
  B-Wells GIMSS- MFMFLM-- E93 .N355 1993

Eighteen reels, with an accompanying guide, of archival information from the records and files of the administration of John Collier. John Collier, a reformist administrator sought to change the Native American boarding school system.

• Department of the Interior, Office of Indian Afairs. (1909). Rules for Indian schools, with course of study. Washington, D.C., Government Publishing Office.
  B-Wells- GIMSS-MFMFLM--Z1223.Z7 C2 1990 no.I2008-14.1 to 14.2

This forty two page document descirbes the rules and regulations for all types of Native American schools. It includes a list of recommended textbooks and the general goals for each grade.

Biographical Resources

As mentioned in the introduction, autobiographies and biographies play an important role in Native American literature in the late 19th and early 20th century. Listed below, are some of the best known biographies of both educators and Native American students.

• Chalcraft, E.L. (2004). Assimilation agent: my life as a superintendent in the Indian boarding school system. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
  B-Wells E97.65.N4 C43 2004

• Iverson, P. (1982). Carlos Montezuma and the changing world of American Indians Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press
  B-Wells E99.Y5 M6534 1982

• Pratt, R.H. (2003). Battlefield & classroom: Four decades with the American Indian, 1867-1904. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  B-Wells E97.6.C2 P89 2003

• Zitkala-Sa. (1985). American Indian stories. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  B-Wells E97.6.C2 P89 2003

Books- General Resources

These books offer a broad perspective on the issues involved.

• Adams, D.W. (1995). Education for extinction : American Indians and the boarding-school experience, 1875-1928 Lawrence: University of Kansas.
  B-Wells E97.5 .A35 1995

Federal policy usually dominates histories about Native American education; Indians are largely silent participants. Exceptions, however, are the studies devoted to individual schools, e.g., Robert Trennert's The Phoenix Indian School (CH, Feb'89) and K. Tsianina Lomawaima's They Called It Prairie Light (CH, Oct'94). What those authors have done for individual schools, Adams (Cleveland State Univ.) accomplishes for the whole system of education that developed in the last quarter of the 19th century. That program was animated by the aphorism of Richard Henry Pratt, one of its most ardent evangels: "Kill the Indian, save the man." In lively prose, Adams tells the poignant story, rich with nuance, of the relentless war against American Indian children. It is a tale about policy makers who sought to use boarding schools as an instrument for transforming Indian youth to "American" ways of thinking, doing, and living. The study focuses on policy formulation, how that policy was translated into institutional practice, and finally, how students responded. Adams demonstrates convincingly that Native American students were anything but passive recipients of the "curriculum of civilization."--Choice

• Child, B. (1998). Boarding school seasons: American Indian families 1900-1940. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
  B-Wells E99.C6 C45 1998

Child, a Red Lake Ojibwa and professor of American Studies, uses her own recollections and those of others found in letters and diaries to render an emotional history of American Indian boarding schools in the early twentieth century. The boarding schools were begun in an attempt to "civilize" Indians but helped develop a sense of Pan-Indian interests by mixing various tribes, languages, and cultures. Letters between students and families reveal a history of "people who experienced forced assimilation," losing control of their lives and their land as changes in the law eroded tribal landholdings and traditions.--Vanessa Bush, Booklist Review

• Coleman, M.C. (1993). American Indian children at school 1850-1930 Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
  B-Wells E97.5 .C64 1993

Coleman's book is a well-written and enlightening study about education at missionary and government Indian schools from 1850 through 1930. By the late 19th century, the US government had erected an elaborate three-tiered system of Indian education, consisting of reservation day schools, reservation boarding schools, and off-reservation boarding schools like Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania. Coleman draws the autobiographical accounts of 100 Native American men and women who attended Indian schools in those decades. He investigates how the schoolchildren saw their experience--with ambivalence; how closely their memories coincided with what American educators and missionaries reported--with a remarkable degree of agreement; and the influences of tribal cultures on student responses to school and the returning pupils' effect on their own people and society. Sadly, too often they were a divisive, rather than enlightening, influence within their tribes and were often shunned by their own people.--Choice Review

• Katanski, A.V. (2005). Learning to write "Indian" : The boarding-school experience and American Indian literature Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  B- Wells E 93.D22 2004

The late-19th-century Native American boarding school was considered central to the assimilation of the American Indian. Viewing the boarding school as a pan-Indian experience, this fine book focuses on the literary production of that period and of the early 20th century. ...She explores the creation of an "Indian" voice and creates a theoretical framework which sees the students as negotiating and mediating the demands of bicultural experience so as to create a repertoire of identity positions that allowed them to change but retain their sense of cultural identity. Katanski also surveys the impact of boarding-school literature on contemporary Native American literature and documents its influence as well as the continuation of bicultural strategies. --Choice Review

• Keller, J.A., Sisquoc, L. & Trafzer, C.E. (2006). Boarding school blues: Revisiting American Indian educational experiences Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
  E97 .B754 2006

The strength of this book, which owes its genesis to a 2002 symposium held at Sherman Indian High School in Riverside, CA, is the intentional decision by many of the authors to escape the restrictive positive/negative dichotomy that has limited the interpretations of many others who have examined the history of American Indian boarding schools. As a result, readers can experience the areas of gray that students experienced, thereby learning to appreciate the complexity of boarding school life. The authors shift the focus of the boarding school experience away from the more traditional institutional histories to the students who attended these "laboratories of civilization" designed by policy makers to hasten the students' assimilation into Euramerican society. Ironically, the authors' focus on the students clearly demonstrates that the system implemented to eradicate Native cultures produced a number of unintended consequences, perhaps none more important than the acquisition of knowledge and skills that would one day enable many boarding school alumni to use their education for the benefit of their own people. In the final analysis, the children coped, survived, endured, or prospered. These brave students' stories are a testament to their adaptability, tenacity, and love for their people.--Choice Review

Books-Specific Boarding Schools

The following are a few of the books available on specific off reservation boarding schools.

• Ellis, C. (1996). To change them foverer: Indian education at the Rainy Mountain boarding school. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  B- Wells E99.C6 C45 1998

Ellis's book provides a detailed perspective on the finale of Jeffersonian philanthropy toward Native Americans, the attempt for more than a century to use education for cultural transformation. His case study is Rainy Mountain School on Oklahoma's Kiowa-Comanche-Apache reservation. From 1893 to 1920 young Kiowas were brought to the school for indoctrination into and adoption of white culture. Ellis has used archival sources, oral history collections, and personal interviews to gather data for this revealing narrative. Information about parental motivations, student reactions, staff viewpoints, bureaucratic ineptitude, alumni reminiscences, and current tribal acknowledgment of Rainy Mountain's place in Kiowa history help re-create and place in perspective a world that has vanished forever.--Choice Review

• Lomawaima, K.T. (1994). They called it Prarie Light: The story of Chilocco Indian School. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
  B-Wells E 97.6.C4 L65 1994

Originally Lomawaima's dissertation, this account of Chilocco Indian School from 1920 to 1940 is based on 51 interviews with alumni (one was the author's father) and seven with staff. Winner of the 1993 North American Indian Prose Award, this book joins a small shelf of reminiscences and histories of Native American off-reservation boarding schools, described as rigidly disciplined institutions that, paradoxically, are fondly remembered by former students... Acts of rebellion were remembered as pranks of high-spirited children, or as part of the game of testing adults' rules... Under government policy to make Native Americans into peasants, Chilocco was harsh and demeaning, its training archaic. However, surviving this gave its students confidence and pride in their manual skills and in sharing Indian identity with so many admirable others, their schoolmates.--Choice Review

• Riney, S. (1999). The Rapid City Indian School, 1898-1933. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  B-Wells E 97.6.R35 R56 1999

Ellis's book provides a detailed perspective on the finale of Jeffersonian philanthropy toward Native Americans, the attempt for more than a century to use education for cultural transformation. His case study is Rainy Mountain School on Oklahoma's Kiowa-Comanche-Apache reservation. From 1893 to 1920 young Kiowas were brought to the school for indoctrination into and adoption of white culture. Ellis has used archival sources, oral history collections, and personal interviews to gather data for this revealing narrative. Information about parental motivations, student reactions, staff viewpoints, bureaucratic ineptitude, alumni reminiscences, and current tribal acknowledgment of Rainy Mountain's place in Kiowa history help re-create and place in perspective a world that has vanished forever. Descriptions of the geographical isolation and physical inadequacies of the school, the lonely plight of the young Kiowas, and the always insufficient support and sometimes inept staffing provide insight into the young Native American students who attended. Photographs and maps enhance the usefulness of this revealing examination. --Choice Review

• Trennet, Jr., R.A. (1988). The Phoneix Indian School: Forced assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  E 97.6.P4 T74 1988

The first history of the Phoenix Indian School by a noted scholar of Indian affairs, this book describes the nearly 100 years (from 1891) of an institution exclusively devoted to the education of Indian students. In time, the study covers both periods of early racial segregation and late desegregation of US public schools. In organization, it covers the history of sequential school administrations and sometimes ineffective national policies; the social, political, and economic relations of the school with the city of Phoenix (which hoped to benefit from its presence); and finally, the effect of an assimilationist education on Indian children. Trennert used oral interviews with former students in assessing this effect. Although he acknowledges that the school purposively subordinated academic to vocational courses, Trennert quite properly sees education at the school as a reflection of the nation's collateral values, at least for the school's first four decades. --Choice Review

• Vuckovic, M. (2008). Voices from Haskell: Indian students between two worlds, 1884-1928. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
  E97.6.H37 V83 2008

Haskell Institute of Lawrence, Kansas, first opened its doors in 1884 to twenty-two Ponca and Ottawa children, sent there to be taught Anglo-Protestant cultural values. For a century and a quarter since that time, this famous boarding school institution has challenged and touched the lives of tens of thousands of Indian students and their families representing a diverse array of tribal heritages...Drawing on children's own accounts in letters, diaries, and other first-hand sources, Myriam Vuckovic reveals what Haskell's students really thought about the boarding school experience. By examining the cultural encounters and contests that occurred there, she portrays indigenous youth struggling to retain a sense of dignity and Indian identity - and refusing to become passive victims of assimilation--Choice Review

Journal Articles

There are a number of journal articles available about Native American boarding schools. The following are four examples which reflect different aspects of the boarding school experience.

• Dejong, D.H. (2007). Unless they are kept alive: Federal Indian schools and student health, 1878-1918. American Indian Quarterly, 31(2). 256-282.

During its thirty eight year history, one out of every eleven students died at school, and one out of every five died upon return to the reservation. In addition, in order to prevent students from dying at the school, they were forcibly returned home, frequently infecting additional family members. Epedemics were triggered by the working conditions of the students, the military like regisment, inadequate diet and harsh discipline, among other causes. This article offers a critique and explaination of the numerous health issues and related studies.

• Gere, A.R. (2004). An art of survivance. American Indian Quarterly 28 (3/4). 649-684.

As a successful artist, Angel Decora, from the Winnebago tribe, offered an alternative view to Native American boarding school students. As a teacher of art at the Carlisle Indian School, she promoted Native American artistic talent, identified a place for it in American culture as well as providing a method to preserve Native American culture within an indstitution designed to supress it. The author refers to this as survivance- the ability to simutaneously survive and resist a dominant culture. This article focuses on the concpet of survivance and how Native Americans, as educators, played a pivotal role in helping to perserve Native American culture.

• Margolis, E. (2004). Looking at discipline, looking at labour: photographic representations of Indian boarding schools. Visual Studies, 19(1), 73-96.

A look at Native American boarding schools through the use of photography. Many of these photographs were used to promote Native American boarding school education through the use of before and after shots of the students. This particular article examines four documentary photography projects involving Native American boarding schools to reveal how they emphasize schooling rather than education. A lot of these documentary images were donated to digital collections available online.

• Trennert, R.A. (1982). Educating Indian girls at nonreservation boarding schools, 1878-1920.Western Historical Quarterly, 13(3), 271-290.

Focuses on the role of female education in Native American boarding schools. Native American boarding school education focused on the training of young women hoping to lead to a "civilizing effect". Approximately half the day was spent in domestic training: such as sewing, cooking and washing in comparison to male students who spent the entire day in academic studies. As funding became scarce this domestic training role became an economic necessity to the well being of the institution.

Boarding School Newspapers

Boarding school newspapers featured stories by and about the students. The following are available here on campus either as bound volumes or microfiche.

• Albuquerque Indian- Albuquerque Indian School
  B-Wells GIMSS- Microforms- E78.N65 A43

• Indian Leader- Haskell Institute
  ALF I 20.39:

• Indian School Journal- Chilocco Indian Agricultural School
  B-Wells GIMSS- Microforms- E97.6.C4 C45

• Red Man-Carlaisle Industrial Indian School
  B-Wells E97.6.C2 R3 v.2 1909-1910

• Southern Workman- Hampton Institute
  B-Wells GIMSS- Microforms- LC90

Web Sites

These web sites were chosen because they will assist in critiquing sites and finding primary information.

• American Native Press Archives. (2007). American Native Press Archives Manuscripts and Special Collections Retreived December 1, 2008, from Sequoyah Research Center Web site:
http://anpa.ualr.edu/finding_aids/collection_finding_aids.htm/

This site contains a bibliography, digital library, indexes and manuscripts to a variety of Native American collections with information on the institutions which own the items.

• Brudvig, J.L. (1996). Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute:American Indian Students (1878-1923)Retrieved December 6, 2008 from Sonja Kenhome Web site:
http:www.twofrog.com/hampton.html

School records for the Hampton Normal & Architectural Institute. Includes a list of students by name and tribal affiliation. Also includes autobiographical essays by numerous students. Please note, website sometimes does not open in Internet Explorer, but can also be found by using the website title and running a Google search.

• Carlaisle Indian Industrial School Research Pages. (2008) Carlaisle Indian Industrial School. Retreived December 6, 2008 from Carlaisle Indian Industrial School Research Pages Web site:
http://home.epix.net/~landis/index.html/

This is a web site that describes and preserves records from the Carlisle Indian School. Through the web site you can order student records. Tribal enrollment figures are available. Please note, website sometimes does not open in Internet Explorer, but can also be found by using the website title and running a Google search.

• Cubbins, E. 2000. Techniques for evaluating American Indian web sites Retreived December 1, 2008 from Univerity of Arizona. Web site:
http://www.u.arizona.edu/~ecubbins/webcrit.html/

A detailed critique on how to evaluate website relating to Native American history and culture.

• University of New Mexico. (2008). Native American websites Retreived December 1, 2008, from University of New Mexico Web site:
http://www.unm.edu/~exa10/Native%20American%20links.htm#Boarding%20Schools/

This site contains links to several boarding schools & Residential school links, individual authors, online articles, essays and museums relating to Native American culture

Images and Interviews

Photographs are another way scholars study the Native American boarding school experience. Listed below are a few online photograpy and document collections accessible through the World Wide Web.

• Library of Congress American Memory. (2008). History of the American West, 1860-1920: Photographs from the Collection of the Denver Public Library Retrieved December 6, 2008 from the Library of Congress American Memory Web site:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/hawpquery.html/

This photograph collection is part of the Library of Congress American Memory collection and is searchable by keyword, name or subject.

• Digital Collections. (2008). American Indians of the Pacific Northwest Collection Retrieved December 1, 2008 from the University of Washington Web site:
http://content.lib.washington.edu/aipnw/

This is a digital collection collected and hosted by the University of Washington. The collection includes both images and documents. Images are searchable by keyword and subject. Documents are searchable by keyword and year.

• University of Oklahoma Western History Collections. (2008). Transcript records Retreived December 6, 2008 from the University of Oklahoma Web site:
http://digital.libraries.ou.edu/whc/duke/transcript.asp?tID=713&sID=0/

Searchable databased of transcriptions from interviews.

Audio/Visual

Both of these videos explore the historical context of Native American boarding schools.

• Jones, M.L. (Producer). Lesiak, C. (Producer). Romero, A. (Producer) (1992). In the white man's image. United States Public Broadcast System.
  B-Wells KENT E97.I355 1992

Tells the story of the attempt to assimilate American Indians into white culture by educating them at special schools such as the Carlisle School for Indians. Founded by Richard Henry Pratt, this school and others like it attempted to wipe out all remnants of Indian culture, and, as a result, created a generation of Indians confused about their identities.-Monroe County Public Library

• Richie, C. (Director), Heaper, S.R. (Producer). (2003). Our spirits don't speak English: Indian Boarding School. United States: rich-Heaper Films, Inc.
  MCPL- Adult Audiovisual 370.89 Our

Uncovers the dark history of U.S. Government policy which took Indian children from their homes, forced them into boarding schools and enacted a policy of educating them in the ways of Western Society. This DVD gives a voice to the countless Indian children forced through a system designed to strip them of their Native American culture, heritage and traditions--www.richheape.com.